A case study on the impact of invasion, and conflict on education.

USPA NEWS - Programme Leader for undergraduate degree SoBE
Regent College London rula.alousi@rcl.ac.uk
153 Great Titchfield Street, London W1W 5BD


Keywords: Educide, genocide, collateral damage, homicide, illegal war.

Abstract

History has proven that education is the lifeblood of any society or country, providing a firm foundation for an established and civilised community. The destruction of an academic system may be recognised and conceded as a massacre imposed on a selected group. The importance of this research comes from its originality as it explores and introduces a new “word” which to date has had no formal definition nor recognition in the English language dictionary, which signifies the impact of mass killing and destruction on education. This research makes an original contribution, through recognising the destructive impact on educational infrastructure as a form of genocide. Accordingly, a significant impact on education and reduces the country's literacy rate, according to the International Criminal Court (International Criminal Court, 1998).

The research also makes an original contribution to knowledge as it presents for the first time a formal introduction to a new word, reflecting this impact with a well-researched and investigated definition. The research findings demonstrate how war and conflict unquestionably have a significant impact on nations affected by conflict, notably in the fields of education and health. From this point, the research presented reference to previous historical cases, such as the invasion of Iraq, the Vietnam war, the genocide in Rwanda, and Nazi Germany, which can be seen as real-life evidence of how conflict would affect education and literacy rates. The research methodology was based on Iraq as a case study, using systematic literature review to investigate the link between genocide and the destruction of the education infrastructure. The research aims to present the elements of crime, justify the usage of the word educide while presenting a formal definition based on the research of previous usage, the genealogy and legality of the term through identifying what constitutes genocide.

Keywords: Educide, genocide, collateral damage, homicide, illegal war.

Introduction and study background

Genocide is seen as a crime on a different scale compared to other crimes particularly when measured against humanity due to the underlying desire to fully eliminate a selected population argues the former Secretary general of Médecins Sans, Frontières Alain Destexhe as he presents a case of genocide argument in his book on the mass killing in Rwanda (Facing History and Ourselves, 2022). The international law parameters had not been identified clearly by the UN. This is, however, changing with the issue of indictments by UN war crimes tribunals. According to UNESCO (2013), the number of children around the world who are out of school has decreased by 3 million children between 2008 - 2011. However, children living in conflict zones are yet to be benefiting from this change. Although these school age children account for 22% of the global primary school-aged children, at the same time, they account for 50% of the children deprived of an education. Ironically, this is an increase from 2008 figures, which add up to 42% of the 28.5 million children of primary school age who are not enrolled in school in conflict zones.

The figures show 12.6 million children have been affected, 5.3 million live in Sub-Saharan Africa, South and West Asia and 4 million in the Arab States. 55% of the population are girls who are disproportionately harmed, as they frequently fall victims of violence and rape during times of conflict. Between 2002 and 2011, 39 nations were designated as being impacted by armed conflict. This gives a concise overview of existing literature on the word “educide” using the legality of the invasion of Iraq as a case of argument while briefly addressing similar internationally recognised relevant cases. Analysis of the research findings surrounding the impact of genocide on education and how this resulted in the recognition of a new word. This was attained through database searches, personal interest in the subject with research spread over ten years and the analysis of the word's etymology.

The word educide was first used by Pluto Press in Nov 2009, which questioned whether the systematic killing of Iraqi academics and the intellectual élite could constitute a case of educide (Baker, et al., 2009). The word can be traced back to the former UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Iraq, Hans-Christoph Von Sponeck speech in March 2011 at the Ghent university conference. The speech examined the cataclysm of Iraqi academia and the country's disastrous education situation. Von Sponeck touched on educide; as a wrongdoing utilising the words education and genocide while focusing on the assassination of the élite academics within the Iraqi educated society.

According to (International Criminal Court, 1998) the latter's intent was for the ICC and ICJ to recognise educide in Iraq as a criminal act. Historically, and as literature was reviewed, educide has been used to insinuate the link between genocide and the damage to the education system (Columbia.edu, 2022). However, there is no formal definition with a solid, legally supported and academically argued explanation on how an act of crime on education could be justified as a genocide-like act. This presented a need to be explicit about exactly what is meant by educide. The research, thus, is the first comprehensive exploration of the illegality of this act and what signifies as genocide on a system such as education. Although educide has been used previously in two books, such as Ghent University’s Academic Bibliography (Ugent.be, 2012) “Beyond educide” the book addressed the sanctions, occupation, and the struggle for higher education in Iraq, Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ugent.be, 2012). However, the word educide has never been formally addressed or explained in this book.

There was no judicious justification linking genocide to the destruction of education although the occupation and the struggle of higher education in Iraq had been addressed. A fiction book titled "educide" was published in 2010 with no relevance to the genocide of education (Parrish, 2019). Although a precise definition has proved elusive, the importance and originality of this research is that it presents for the first time a formal definition with full justification in understanding the link between genocide and education. Henceforth, the researcher presents the following definition.

Educide: the mass destruction of a country or region's educational infrastructure because of war, invasion, conflict, terrorism, or mass killings (Rula Alousi).

Research methodology

This began with a background examination into the topic, researching while using systematic techniques used to discover similar and relevant research and publications that existed for review. The research investigated and analysed the background of the word “Educide”: its origins, genealogy, previous usage, legal factors, and elements of crime that call for identifying this word with legal aspects taken into consideration (Rubanzana et al., 2015). The researcher then systematically examined the available databases, aiming to provide as much information as possible regarding the current usage of the word.

Systematic literature review

A systematic literature review was carried out by posing a clear and formulated research question (Bearman et al.). The aim was to identify a word which had not yet been introduced or included in any dictionary. This was achieved while validating the use of the word from a both legal and academic perspective. What constitute as genocide and why the act of war and invasion in this case is considered as genocide inflicted on the education infrastructure. In an aim to locate previous studies, rigours research was carried out to help in determining and justifying reason for combining two English words into one. Researching various articles books and existing publications had helped in forming a critical analysis achieved in the use of variety of sources had proven to be somewhat difficult particularly since no previous usage of the word in academic context had been made (Askerov, 2010). An interesting finding on “Beyond Educide” is that the authors of the book had no previous academic publication relevant to this word or using this word before. Furthermore, various databases were used to investigate the availability of the topic (citeseerx.ist.psu.edu, n.d

Many articles published by international organisations such as the UN and UNESCO were also used to analyse and evaluate the research. Having researched a variety of these articles a decision was made to identify the most useful and relevant publication to use for this review. The critical evaluation of the study is presented through the specific criteria used to identify the validity of the study was addressed through the literature review on the elements of crime and what constitutes genocide. An elimination process also took place during this review to decide which publication to go for or otherwise not. The collection of data offered a methodological approach to this literature review as Iraq’s case was used to identify figures and data analysis of what the Iraqi education system was before the invasion of 2003 and what it became post-invasion (Rickinson and May, n.d.).

Limitation on the research

To date, there has been limited research into what constitutes genocide outside of specific world-recognised mass murders. Throughout this review, the word educide will be used to refer to the impact of mass killings, war, invasion, and conflict on education (Genocideeducation.org, 2021). Following that, the data selection and analysis methods employed in this research reviewed various studies to investigate and consequently find a legal justification for the usage of this word based on international law and human rights violations. The findings of the research were synthesised and integrated to provide a detailed view of what constitutes genocide and why conflict, war, and invasion could result in genocide against education.

Google Scholar was used searching for the word, which is unquestionably the best scholarly online platform. There is little evidence about what "educide" means; hence, a search through common academic browsers was carried out for this review to identify "educide" as a keyword in this literature review. The outcome proved negative. A search using Microsoft Scholar proved negative as no research was identified to use this word. However, a search on CORE proved to be successful to some extent as this referred to the same book addressed in the literature review for Beyond educide referenced the same book. Other search engines such as Science.gov, Semantic Scholar, Baidu Scholar, and RefSeek had similar outcomes. Overall, these results indicate that this literature review has identified the only possible publications relevant to the use of the word educide. Other related keywords were searched using the same databases to search for a link between the words and the aim of this review.

The research reviewed literature surrounding the evolution of education in Iraq which will divided into three phases, the golden years, the decline years, and the crisis years. Addressing specific turning points in the history of education in Iraq since the formation of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1932 (History.com Editors, 2010) and concluding with the post-occupation of 2003 to the present day. The UN formed the OIP the UN's Security Council Resolution 986 ruled in 1995 to allow Iraq to sell oil in return for food, medication, essential humanitarian assistance and aid for the benefit of Iraqi citizens without enabling Iraq to strengthen its armed force. The OIP lasted for thirteen years and did not end until the invasion of April 2003, when the Coalition Forces initiated a war against Iraq, commanded by the US, culminating in Saddam Hussein's death, Iraq's president, for 24 years. From that date on, the country has been plunged into political and civil upheaval, and the country's entire infrastructure has crumbled.

At its heart, this is the worst educational genocide in history, with 84% of Iraq's schooling system destroyed (World Data on Education Données mondiales de l’éducation Datos Mundiales de Educación, n.d.). The UNESCO assessments was one of the Arab world's top systems (Unesco.org, 2022) the report demonstrates succinctly how persistent instability and widespread violence obstruct the restoration of the school sector (Blua, 2009).

In its article II, the 1946 UN General Assembly Convention recognised genocide in A/RES/96-I of the UN General Assembly as a criminal act under international humanitarian law. Moreover, the 1948 Genocide Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide recognised genocide as a unique murder, forbidding and identifying it as a violent act (United Nations, 2018). The word "genocide” coined by Raphäel Lemkin, a Polish jurist, in his book "Axis Rule in Occupied Europe." The word is derived from the Latin words "Genos" (race or tribe) and "Cide" (disaster) (killing). The word "genocide" was used to describe the Nazis' systematic slaughter of Jewish civilians during the Holocaust. Thereafter, the word "genocide" came to be frequently used to refer to the wholesale murder of members of certain groups or segments of communities.

According to Article I of the Genocide Convention, Crime's Elements, genocide may occur through armed conflict, perhaps during a peaceful situation, and on an international or non-international scale (United Nations, 1948). Murder is a criminal act that falls within the category of homicide, which includes both noncriminal actions and criminal acts. Certain killings, such as killing someone to prevent them from performing a major crime or assisting the police, might be taken as proof of ethical implications. Other forms of killings are regarded justifiable, such as when a person defends himself or herself against another person. As defined by the appropriate statutory provisions, an unjustified or understandable murder is something that can be explained or morally acceptable. To distinguish between different forms of homicide, all court systems emphasise considerable disparities between them (Icty.org, 2022). As a result, punishments differ significantly based on the killer's motivation, the severity of the killer's actions, and the circumstances surrounding the occurrence.

Educide is an articulate portrayal of the devastation and harm done to education. A systematic approach to eradicating and destroying a country's or region's educational infrastructure, either partially or entirely. History has proven that education is the quintessence of the modern world, providing a firm foundation for an established and civilised society, the destruction of an academic system may be recognised and conceded as a massacre imposed on a community. This literature review aspired to show how societies and communities that are subjected to or affected by violence and war would suffer educational outcomes that would be extensive in their structure, management, curricula, and even the ethics of education (TRIAL International, 2021). War and conflict undeniably impact any society, particularly the education and health sectors (International Criminal Court, 1998).

The destruction of educational infrastructure will have a detrimental impact on schooling, resulting in a reduction in enrolment and the availability of skilled staff. Previous historical scenarios, such as the cases of Iraq, Vietnam, Rwanda, and Nazi Germany, can be seen as real-life evidence of how conflict would affect job markets, economic development, growth, literacy, and even understanding of basic human rights. Ignorance would become the norm. Consequently, the research aims to criminalise the act of educide and make more people aware across the globe that such action is a crime against humanity on all levels. Although the international law restrictions had not been identified clearly by the UN, this is changing with the issue of indictments by UN war crimes tribunals. Measurement and definition are somewhat challenging in determining the number of deaths that constitute genocide (Icty.org, 2017).

Despite this, many people believe that mass killing is identifiable. Genocide may be seen as a crime on a different scale compared to other crimes particularly when measured against humanity due to the underlying desire to fully eliminate a selected population argues the former Secretary general of Médecins Sans, Frontières Alain Destexhe as he presents a case of genocide argument in his book on the mass killing in Rwanda (Facing History and Ourselves, 2022). Consequently, genocide is considered as the severest and most heinous criminal offense inflicted on humanity.

Direction of future research

The findings of this research paper have several important implications for future research. The investigation and thorough analysis of several facets of education, such as classroom pedagogy, curriculum, school administration and management, and teacher development (Craddock, 2017). Of course, with particular emphasis on educide and the impact on education from these elements. Although the current system shows a slight increase in the dropout rate for school-aged children according to the (the cost and benefits of education in Iraq: an analysis of the education sector and strategies to maximise the benefits of education, n.d.) yet Iraq remains to be one of the worst within the international universities ranking (Genocideeducation.org, 2021).

Defining “educide”

A word may be defined through a combination of meaning and sound, pronounced (?? d u? s ?? d) according to the IPA pronunciation. There are various styles in which a word is defined, identified, and later included in a dictionary. These styles could be a synonym, theoretical, ostensive, and operational (Fike, 2014). In this instance, the later (operational) definition is used as it is specific to how educide is used in the specific context of genocide and education. Operational definition helped in this process to make the word meaningful to use in a sentence or text. It is highly possible that educide may possibly lead to organised assassination of intellectuals within a community; execution and displacement of teachers and school-aged children will be inevitable.

A noticeable decline in education and literacy standards would be visible in the affected region. In a more sombre, though straightforward manner, educide can be defined as the mass destruction of education. A word used to describe a genocide-like impact on an education system. The word comprises two words, "genocide and education", reflecting the genocidal impact of conflict of any type and terrorism on education in any wardriven country or region. Educide, is a description of the destruction impacting education in a conflict zone.

The definition may be nebulous; however, the aim is to find a suitable description of the effect of mass killings and genocide like act on education. The research found that the destructing of education is an eradicative process with consequentially devastating outcome either a portion of all a country's or region's educational infrastructure. Education is regarded as the essence of the population, providing a firm foundation for a population or communities that are well established. Along these lines, the destruction of an academic system should be recognised and condemned as a form of genocide. while investigating Iraq's education system and its educide, a personal view argues this case as a form of genocide to education. The argument is to introduce this as this is a criminal offence on a mass scale against education. Modern education systems differ significantly around the globe and among cultures.

The element of crime

For a case to qualify as genocide, there must be proof that wrongdoers intended to substantially eliminate certain groups within a country or area, such as national, ethnic, racial, or religious groupings. This intent, or "dolus specialis," is what distinguishes a crime like genocide. Case law has historically associated purpose with state and governmental programmes and plans, although these factors are not included in the worldwide agreement on what qualifies genocidal crime. According to the UN convention (Nations, 2018), genocide victims are deliberately targeted for possibly belonging to one of four protected categories, with exclusion of political groupings. Furthermore, the UN convention specifies that if the group is recognisable, genocide may be executed partially by targeting a portion of the group (Brown v. Board of Education | Case, 1954, Definition, Decision, Facts, & Impact | Britannica, 2022).

During the Vietnam War, several ludicrous assertions were used to justify the US's actions against the Vietnamese people (Trines, 2017). The aim is to reach an understanding of this word's origin to have a better understanding of how to utilise it most effectively. We know what something originally meant and what it has continued to evolve, as well as how people have used it in the past and now. One can detect trends or links across languages based on etymology or genealogy. According to Article I of the Genocide Convention, the crime of genocide may occur during conflict or war, whether due to an international act or domestic. It is also possible to happen during time of peace. The General Assembly resolution 260 A (III) of December 9, 1948, recommended for signature, ratification, or accession (Article XIII, n.d., entered into force on January 12, 1951.) In September 2004, the Secretary-General of the UN proclaimed the US-led invasion of Iraq to be illegal. At the time, Kofi Annan stated that the attack was not sanctioned by the UN Security Council nor was it conforming with the UN's founding charter.

In a statement, Kofi Annan famously notes that “The US-led war on Iraq was illegal” (UN News, 2004). Mr Annan expressed two points here one describing the act as an invasion and the other noting that the UN Security Council did not sanction this invasion nor was the invasion was in conformity with the founding charter of the UN. Thus, on all levels, this was an illegal war. Although Mr Annan noted that Iraq had already been warned by the security council with resolution 1441 and should Iraq fail to comply there would be possible consequences. Mr Annan goes on to say that the consequences of noncompliance should have been determined and actioned by the security council rather that this illegal war (Ewen MacAskill and Borger, 2004). According to (Murphy, 2003), the UN' Article II of the Genocide Convention has a constrained description of this atrocity that reduces to two main elements. The mental and physical elements. The mental element, consisting of the "intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such" (Hrw.org, 2022).

To qualify as genocide, perpetrators must demonstrate an intention to physically exterminate a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. The physical element consists of killing individuals belonging to a specific group while aggravating harm and suffering on its members, purposely trying to impose harsh living conditions with the predicted result of physical destruction (Hrw.org, 2022). For the most part, this is expected to involve forcible restrictions on childbearing within the community and forcible removal of children from one group to another group and place. Cultural destruction is insufficient, as is the goal of dispersing a group. This distinctive intent, or dolus specialis, distinguishes genocide from other crimes (Ambos, 2009).

In its periodic judgements the ICC, had created headlines all around the world, drawing attention to itself. However, national law enforcement is responsible for most of the work involved in combating impunity for serious crimes that are prohibited by international law. Current efforts are being made in two different directions to improve international collaboration to ensure national prosecution: In addition, the ILC is working on a long-term, two-part project; (Strengthening the International Criminal Court and the Rome Statute System: A Guide for States Parties IBA International Criminal Court and International Criminal Law Programme, n.d.) the first involves draughting articles in precreation of future convention on the prohibition of violations of human rights, akin to the Genocide Convention and the ICAT, are already in force.

The second part is a state-led initiative to draught an international treaty on mutual legal assistance for countries suffering from serious international crimes (OHCHR, 2022). Choosing an appropriate description for international crimes is one of the most challenging problems to overcome when assembling state responsibilities to prosecute international crimes. It is one of the most difficult challenges to resolve when setting state duties to prosecute such crimes. Section 7 of The Rome Statute lists eleven offences that constitute crimes against humanity, as well as a residual category for acts that are akin to crimes against humanity (International Criminal Court, 1998).

To be considered severe, the actions must be carried out as part of broad or organised aggression on civilians. With knowledge and understanding of the attack, which is a "chapeau" factor required to support their classification. A defendant only needs to commit a single occurrence of such crime to be found guilty of a crime against humanity; much of the vitriol directed toward low-level perpetrators stems from the fact that they were involved in a large-scale attack on civilian targets (Icty.org, 2022). Unfortunately, in the same section, the crucial phrase "attack" was defined in a comprehensive manner that did not make sense.

There is no physical violence required for an assault; rather, multiple occurrences of any of these behaviours, in conformity with state policy, is all that is needed. According to critics, the ICJ has not had a chance to apply a more restricted interpretation. In the end, the ICC (International Criminal Court, 1998) is summoned in the direst of situations. Only a few cases are eligible for consideration by the Court, which further limits the number of possible causes put forward as crimes under the Rome Statute. Such language has been interpreted liberally in previous rulings, if national laws violate an international human rights criterion, including detention as a legal option, it would be unlawful (Icty.org, 2022). There must be a violation of international law's essential conditions when detention occurs with an actual assault on civilians, international tribunals have had little incentive to limit the scope of this category.

Iraq – A case of educide
In 1921 the Iraqi education system was established. In the early 1970s, education became nationally free and at the same time compulsory. The school educational system is overseen by the MOE. The MOHESR is responsible for tertiary education and research centres. With the introduction of UN sanctions in the early 1990s, student performance began to fall. This arose from a reduction in school expenditure because of trade sanctions. Simultaneously time, it was estimated that 80% of school buildings needed rehabilitation and lacked basic sanitary amenities, with most schools lacking libraries and modern scientific labs. In response to all these pressures, the government cut the obligatory school age to eleven years only at the time (Craddock, 2017).

To quantify the problem, the post-invasion administration was predominantly dysfunctional and uneducated, as such they relied on bogus and forged educational qualifications to secure high-level seats in parliament or, ironically, university chancellors and deans of colleges, among other current administration or senior figure appointments. Prior to the invasion, around 500,000 persons have been enrolled in universities and colleges. Following the embargo, 84% of males and 65% of females were educated, indicating a small reduction in literacy among the population aged 15–24 compared to the UNESCO's CIA World Factbook of 1978, when illiteracy was abolished (Cia.gov, 2021).

Iraq’s education system Timeline
1970-1984: The Golden Years

During this time, the education system was thought to be among the best in the Middle East, and it was well praised. By 1984, substantial accomplishments achieved, including near-complete gender equity in enrolment. The Illiteracy among children aged 6 to 12 has decreased to less than 10%. The average government spending per pupil was $620 which was around the same annual budget per pupil in the UK for the same year (Parliament.uk, 2022)

1984-1989: The Decline Years

The war with Iran in the 1980s resulted in a diversion of public funds to military spending. As a result, overall social spending has decreased dramatically. As a result, there was a deficit in the education budget, which continued to rise over time. This period lacked strategic planning due to the Iraq – Iran war where government expenditure was more focused on the armed forces.

1990-2003: The Crisis Years
In addition, the First Gulf War and the ensuing economic embargo greatly weakened educational infrastructure by the early 1990s. The GNP spending on education fell to virtually 50% less than the original budget, sitting at 3.3% with the beginning of the invasion. The former $620 average government spending per pupil was now reduced to $47 per pupil. In addition, in 2002-2003 as Gross Income fell. Primary education enrolment began to decline, and a 15% of primary education were repeating the year and 34% from secondary education. This was double the figures for the MENA region. However, the worst was yet to come. Academics were threatened with violence, kidnapped, or murdered on numerous occasions since the 2003.

Investigative reports
The Iraq War Inquiry, dubbed the "Chilcot Report" in honour of its chairman, Sir John Chilcot, was a British public inquiry investigating the country's participation in the Iraq War. Prime Minister Gordon Brown initiated the probe in 2009, and Chilcot issued a public statement in 2016 (Hyde, 2009). Sir John Chilcot announced the reports in 2016, more than seven years after the investigation was launched (News, 2016). The report concluded that the former president of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, did not constitute an urgent risk to United Kingdom's interests. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Harding, 2016) the report found that there had been no peaceful alternatives to war offered or indeed exhausted. The report also found that both the UK and USA have undermined the authority of UN’s Security Council (Sands, 2016)

It is appropriate and significant that the United Kingdom, unlike many other countries, attempted to address its political mistakes and violations, including the UN Charter. The report necessitates thoroughly examining these issues. One might believe that criminal offences with such lethal consequences would result in legal sanctions against the liable political and military figures. The Chilcot report does not contain any legally binding judgments. As Chilcot points out, this would necessitate establishing a properly constituted and internationally recognised court.

This research identified that the Chilcot report presents an excellent blueprint on how to deter unnecessary wars and conflict as these lessons ought to be the imperative of enacting the necessary changes to the criminal law reforms. Naturally, this makes one think of the International Criminal Court in The Hague, whose great predecessor, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal, set up to punish important Nazi perpetrators, referred to Germany's aggressiveness as the mother of all crimes. Investigations or charges related the crime of aggression cannot, however, be brought in The Hague at this time (Ecchr.eu, 2022).

Robert Fisk's July 2004 report was one of the first to address this violence (Paul, 2021), according to Fisk, Iraqi academics think it likely that there is a campaign to strip Iraq of its intellectuals, to finalise the ruination of Iraq's national identity that launched in April 2003. In January 2006, the Brussels Tribunal filed an international appeal against the crime (OHCHR, 2017). As of December 20, 2008, it listed 410 killed academics and 76 threatened intellectuals. There is little information available about the group or groups responsible for the attacks.

According to the Brussels Tribunal, nobody has been apprehended in connection with these assassinations though various hypotheses for the attacks have been advanced, including a systematic attempt to decimate Iraq's intellectual elite by Iraqi non-state armed opposition groups. Due to the sheer severity of the violence against academics, there is concern that those academics who are not killed will or would have left Iraq by the time of this research is completed. According to the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation director-general Kochiro Matsuura (Unesco.org, 2022), by targeting those who hold the keys to Iraq's reconstruction and development, the perpetrators of this violence are jeopardising the prospect of Iraq and its justice system.

Conclusion

As we look back on the decision to invade Iraq, we shouldn’t forget that the Iraqi regime pre 2003 committed grave human rights crimes directed at various segments of the Iraqi population. It would be wrong to place all the blame for the destabilisation of the region on foreign military powers. Nevertheless, the war and consequent occupation contributed massively to the fragility of Iraq and the emergence of various terrorist groups which contributed to the destruction and damage to the Iraqi education system (Ecchr.eu, 2022). The aim of this research was to formulate a formal definition while identifying the crime of genocide as a criminal act which can be inflicted on a system, not just a specific segment of a community. Very little was found in the literature on the question of defining educide as found through the literature review and search engines. However, in reviewing the available publications, much research and data were found on the association between genocide and the impact on education. Yet, all the reviewed literature failed to fully define what educide is.

Although insinuation was evident, yet, there was no distinct identification and definition of the existed in any of the literature. The book Beyond Educide makes no attempt to suggest why did the authors choose the title of the book. One criticism of much of the literature on the link between genocide and the damage to education is that lack of identification to a specific type of crime such as educide which many of the available literature failed to identify. Supporting both academics and students across various academic levels had brought the impact of decades of conflict and war on what was once a reputable academic structure that neighbouring countries lookup to.

The idea of the word educide was conceived during work on a documentary in London with other academics and professionals organised by the Brussels tribunal who dedicated a copy of the book to this author after conducting several interviews in search of answers to the scale of damage to the Iraqi education system. This research concluded that the act of invasion, war and destruction of education is indeed a crime and should be categorised as genocide when taking the legal aspects into consideration. There is no evidence that the act was what wrongdoers classify as “collateral damage” which is often used to justify the killings of civilians and the destruction of a country’s infrastructure. Collateral damage was made popular and frequently used during military strikes on Iraq. First used in February 1905 by the New York Tribune justifying the unintended deaths of civilian casualties during wartime.

In conclusion, this research supports the international legal line of reasoning that human rights organisations have argued for years that what happened in Iraq was an unjustified, unethical war, illegal invasion, and intrusion on sovereignty. This research also concludes that the impact had caused severe damage to the Iraqi education system which to date is suffering its impact.

References

Adriaensens. Dirk, De Cauter. Lieven, Parker. Christopher, Treunen. Ward, Zemni Sami. Beyond educide. Sanctions, occupation, and the struggle for higher education in Iraq.

Akresh, Richard & de Walque, Damien. (2008). Armed Conflict and Schooling: Evidence from the 1994 Rwandan Genocide. Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), IZA Discussion Papers. 10.2139/ssrn.1139906.

Ambos, K. (2009). What does “intent to destroy” in genocide mean?. International Review of the Red Cross, 91(876), pp.833–858.

Askerov, A. (2010). PEACE EDUCATION AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A CRITICAL REVIEW. Innovative Issues and Approaches in Social Sciences,

Baker, Raymond W Ismael, Shereen T Ismael, Tareq Y. Cultural Cleansing in Iraq: Why Museums Were Looted, Libraries Burned and Academics Murdered. University of Jordan; NAICS: 611310. Pluto Journals, London, 2012.

Bearman, Margaret, et al. “Systematic Review Methodology in Higher Education.” Higher Education Research & Development, vol. 31, no. 5, Oct. 2012, pp. 625–640, 10.1080/07294360.2012.702735. Accessed 26 June 2022.

Blua, A. (2009). Iraq Struggles To Rebuild Its Education System. [online] RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty.
Brown v. Board of Education | Case, 1954, Definition, Decision, Facts, & Impact | Britannica. (2022). In: Encyclopædia Britannica
Carroll, C. and Booth, A. (2014). Quality assessment of qualitative evidence for systematic review and synthesis: Is it meaningful, and if so, how should it be performed? Research Synthesis Methods,
Cia.gov. (2021).
Columbia.edu. (2022). View of Becoming Rwandan: Education, reconciliation, and the making of a post-genocide citizen | Current Issues in Comparative Education.

Craddock, A. (2017). Education in Iraq.
Fike, L. (2014). Larry Fike. [online] Larry Fike.
Genocideeducation.org. (2021). Who We Are | Genocide Education Project.
History.com Editors (2010). Iraq wins independence. [online]

Hrw.org. (2022). Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: I) GENOCIDE (Article 2).
Ichino Andrea and Winter?Ebmer, Rudolf. The Long?Run Educational Cost of World War II. European University Institute, CEPR, IZA, and CESifoUniversity of Linz, CEPR, IZA, and WIFO.

Icty.org. (2022). Kunarac Appeal Judgement.
International Criminal Court (1998). Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.
Kar, D. and Spanjers, J. (2016). Transnational Crime and the Developing World Channing May. Transnational Crime,

Khan, S. and Seltzer, A. (2016). The Impact of Fundamentalist Terrorism on School Enrolment: Evidence from North-Western Pakistan, 2004-09. SSRN Electronic Journal.

Mathisen, J. (2012). Digital Commons @ George Fox University Education reform in Rwanda: impacts of genocide and reconstruction on school systems.
Murphy, S.D. (2003). Assessing the Legality of Invading Iraq. SSRN Electronic Journal.
Nations, U. (2018). United Nations Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect.

OHCHR. (2022). Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment.
OHCHR. (2017). OHCHR | Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions.
Origins. (2017). Genocide and Justice in Rwanda | Origins.
Parrish, L. (2019). Scribl - Educide by S. Lawrence Parrish.
Paul, J. (2021). Fallujah Horror Points to Iraq’s

Rahman Bin Muhammed Ibn Khaldun, A. and Rosenthal, F. (n.d.). THE MUQADDIMAH.

Rickinson, M. and May, H. (n.d.). A comparative study of methodological approaches to reviewing literature.

Rubanzana, W., Ntaganira, J., Freeman, M.D. and Hedt-Gauthier, B.L. (2015). Risk factors for homicide victimization in post-genocide Rwanda: a population -based case- control study. BMC Public Health,
Sansom, A., Milton and Ba, M. (2013). THE NEGLECTED PILLAR OF RECOVERY: A STUDY OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN POST---WAR IRAQ AND LIBYA Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Post---war Recovery Studies Post---war Reconstruction and Development Unit

Shatz, H. (n.d.). ISIS and Nusra Funding and the Ending of the Syrian War.
Simkin, J. (2020). Leopold Trepper. [online] Spartacus Educational.
Strengthening the International Criminal Court and the Rome Statute System: A Guide for States Parties IBA International Criminal Court and International Criminal Law Programme. (n.d.).
TRIAL International. (2021). Crimes Against Humanity - TRIAL International.
Trines, S. (2017). Education in Vietnam. [online] WENR.
Ugent.be. (2012). Ghent University Academic Bibliography.
UN News. (2004). Lessons of Iraq war underscore importance of UN Charter - Annan
Unesco.org. (2022).
United Nations (1948). Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide.
World Data on Education Données mondiales de l’éducation Datos Mundiales de Educación. (n.d.).
Zawacki-Richter, Olaf, et al. Systematic Reviews in Educational Research Methodology, Perspectives and Application.